抖阴app

Spurred by an explosion of research led by TC, the nation is placing big bets on early childhood learning and development

If all goes well, 抖阴app neuroscientist Kimberly Noble will soon begin handing over $4 million to a group of new mothers. The goal: to see if a boost in monthly income translates into bigger brains for their children. In a widely-reported study last spring in Nature Neuroscience, Noble found that family income directly correlated with increases in the surface area of brain regions implicated in language and executive function. Children in the poorest families had up to 6 percent less brain surface area than those in the richest group. If her new study bears out this seeming cause-effect connection, the policy implications will be tough to ignore. 鈥淢anipulating socio-economic circumstance can be difficult,鈥� Noble says, 鈥渂ut giving people money isn鈥檛.鈥�

Striking While the Iron is Hot

鈥孖t鈥檚 hardly news that children鈥檚 earliest years shape their subsequent development. In the 1960s, Edmund Gordon, now TC Richard March Hoe Professor Emeritus of Psychology & Education, found that the federal Head Start program narrowed the achievement gap between wealthier white children and lower-income children of color. Several long-term studies co-led by TC psychologist Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Virginia & Leonard Marx Professor of Child Development & Education, have unequivocally linked socio-economic status to learning and health outcomes. In the Perry Preschool Study, inner-city three- and four-year-olds in the 1960s who attended a play-based learning program supplemented by home visits later achieved higher graduation rates, greater earnings, fewer arrests and less reliance on public assistance. In the 1980s, psychologists Betty Hart and Todd Risley found that by age four, children from wealthy families were exposed to 30 million more words than children on welfare. And the list goes on.

Rita Gold Center

A $500,000 gift from the Cleveland H. Dodge Foundation, headed by TC Board Co-Chair and Campaign Vice Chair William Dodge Rueckert, will enhance education, research and training at the Rita Gold Early Childhood Center. Read more >>

鈥淲e know how poverty, risk and other environmental and interpersonal factors affect early development,鈥� says Susan Recchia, Professor of Education and Coordinator of TC鈥檚 Program in Early Childhood Special Education. 鈥淵et the nation has been slow coming to terms with the devastating impact.鈥�

More recently, though, a flood of new findings in fields ranging from genetics to economics has sparked real change.

鈥淎lmost at every turn, in a variety of disciplines, the pendulum is swinging to support increased investment in young kids,鈥� says Sharon Lynn Kagan, Virginia & Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood & Family Policy.

In 2007, a commission spearheaded by Kagan recommended shifting $60 billion to support preschool nationwide. In 2013, the Obama administration announced its 鈥淧reschool for All鈥� initiative, and today states and municipalities increasingly provide universal preschool. New York City launched its own program last year.

Clearly, the notion that, as Noble says, 鈥渢he first three years are a time of massive brain plasticity,鈥� has arrived, and with it, recognition that many young children are deprived of essential learning opportunities. But all the ferment also suggests another possibility: Children who are learning could be learning much more.

Eighteen Months and Counting

On the eleventh floor of Thorndike Hall, Karen Froud鈥檚 team in TC鈥檚 Neurocognition of Language Lab apply electrodes to participants鈥� heads and decipher graphs of brain activity. The technique, electroencephalography (EEG), shows the development of specific brain functions by measuring responses to specific stimuli.

Small Talk:
Herbert Ginsburg

Herbert Ginsburg, who has video-taped interviews with hundreds of children, says important mathematical ideas and skills can be learned by age four, 鈥測et research shows that most pre-K teachers do little with math or else do it badly.鈥� Many have math anxiety, or lack insight into young children鈥檚 mathematical thinking or ideas that under-lie mathematical operations.

鈥淪ix-month-olds have largely refined the sound system of their language,鈥� says Froud, Associate Professor of Neuroscience & Education. 鈥淭hey can distinguish even earlier between their own and other languages, but that鈥檚 when brain material becomes specialized to respond differentially to different speech sounds.鈥� Yet, second language instruction typically begins in the sixth grade 鈥� 鈥渧ery late to acquire a new phonological system.鈥�

Other disciplines, too, are finding that young children can handle more than they currently receive. As early as age three, children 鈥渒now that if you put more food on the plate, you鈥檝e got more food than you had before 鈥� which is the essence of addition,鈥� says Herbert Ginsburg, Jacob H. Schiff Foundations Professor of Psychology & Education. 鈥淭hrough various activities, you can build on that understanding.鈥�

Ginsburg, who has videotaped hundreds of children engaging in flexible interviews about their 鈥渆veryday math,鈥� says important mathematical ideas and skills can be learned by age four, 鈥測et the research shows that most pre-K teachers do little with math or else do it badly.鈥� Many have math anxiety, or lack insight into young children鈥檚 mathematical thinking or the ideas that underlie mathematical operations 鈥� training that colleges and universities rarely provide.

With the advent of the Common Core State Standards, Ginsburg, who teaches a course called The Development of Mathematical Thinking for TC early childhood education students, sees preschools caught between a 鈥渇alse dichotomy鈥� of structured, assessment-oriented lesson plans and free play.
鈥淔ree play is wonderful,鈥� he says, 鈥渂ut research shows it should be supplemented by intentional, exciting instruction.鈥�

Similarly, 鈥渕ost children have the brain capacity to deal with all kinds of material,鈥� Froud says, 鈥渂ut sitting them at a desk eight hours daily isn鈥檛 development. To get young kids engaged with language, put them in a language-rich setting using vision, sound and the environment. Make it part of what they do.鈥�

Children, Behave!

鈥孨ine floors below Froud鈥檚 lab, toddlers at the Rita Gold Early Childhood Center prepare to visit the park. One boy shuts off the lights to signal clean-up time. The floor is strewn with blocks and toys 鈥� messiness to a parent, but to staff members at the Center, where student-teachers work during the practicum phase of TC鈥檚 Early Childhood Education program, something much richer.

鈥淜ids leave behind in the classroom something they constructed,鈥� says Emmy Fincham, a toddler room lead teacher. 鈥淲e can draw from these experiences to create space for children鈥檚 agency and help them develop their self-regulation skills.鈥�

The Center, which serves infants, toddlers and preschoolers of Columbia-affiliated families, practices what director Patrice Nichols calls an 鈥渆mergent curriculum鈥� built on each day鈥檚 experience. An imagined trip to Jupiter becomes a teachable moment about gravity and temperature. A reading of the children鈥檚 classic, The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Gray Bridge, prompts a trip to the real Little Red Lighthouse under the George Washington Bridge and an investigation of New York City maps and landmarks.

鈥淲hat happens in the classroom comes from the lived life of the classroom,鈥� Nichols says. 鈥淲e create learning opportunities by noticing what children find meaningful and interesting. It鈥檚 different than judging your success based on kids accomplishing predetermined goals.鈥�

Fincham and fellow teacher Tran Templeton read toddlers鈥� body language, welcome children to re-purpose materials for unexpected play scenarios and communicate respect as kids discover who they are and what it means to be part of the classroom community.

鈥淪tudent teachers notice we avoid 鈥榖aby talk鈥� and talking down to the children,鈥� Fincham says. 鈥淭hey鈥檒l say, 鈥榊ou talk to them like people.鈥欌��

Taking Play Seriously

Maria Montessori鈥檚 observation that 鈥減lay is the work of the child鈥� was founding TC doctrine, but in an era emphasizing grades and test scores, today鈥檚 faculty are newly determined to validate the approach.

鈥淪ome people say, 鈥楽o much time gets wasted on breakfast and outside play,鈥欌�� says Mariana Souto-Manning, Associate Professor of Early Childhood Education and Coordinator of TC's Early Childhood Education Program. 鈥淲ell, those are the learning times. Young children need room to develop as expert players and communicators.鈥�

Denise Ross
Changing Reading Behavior

鈥淲E CAN鈥橳 REWRITE the development of older students who struggle with literacy,鈥� says Denise Ross (Ph.D. 鈥�98). 鈥淏ut our knowledge of early childhood can help them.鈥�  With her TC mentor, Professor of Psychology & Education Douglas Greer, Ross, now Associate Professor of Psychology at Western Michigan University, used behavioral methods to help children with language delays expand their verbal repertoires. More recently, she鈥檚 used behavioral methods to help older elementary school students who weren鈥檛 reading to learn phonics (building blocks of sound).  

鈥淧lay is seen as emotionally good for kids, but not always as an intellectual part of building curriculum,鈥� says Haeny Yoon, Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education. Yoon recently observed a successful kindergarten writing workshop in which 鈥渢he time was mostly spent playing, but play was what got them to write at all.鈥� The make-believe scenarios and dynamics of play infused the children鈥檚 drawings and writing, teaching them, for instance, to correctly spell one another鈥檚 names. 鈥淚f kids need language, they鈥檒l use it,鈥� Yoon says.

In another study, Yoon documented 鈥渓iteracy moves鈥� in kindergartners鈥� playtime whiteboard scribbles, drawings and even items they鈥檇 thrown away. 鈥淭here鈥檚 real power in teachers taking seriously what kids are doing when they play,鈥� she says.

Both Souto-Manning, who is Brazilian, and Yoon, the daughter of Korean immigrants, believe play reveals the knowledge and abilities of young children from different cultures.

鈥淰ygotsky wrote that 鈥榠n play, a child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behaviors; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself,鈥欌�� says Souto-Manning, referring to early 20th century Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. 鈥淵oung children know a lot through their families and communities, and are capable communicators even if not in the so-called standard English. Pre-K teachers must be researchers who identify and tap into these funds of knowledge.鈥�

Encouraging native and second languages is essential. 鈥淢any young children enter classrooms as bilinguals or emergent bilinguals, and they are constantly operating within and across the rules of different languages,鈥� Souto-Manning says. 鈥淭hat鈥檚 an asset, but historically it鈥檚 been seen as a deficit when measured against white, middle-class monolingual norms.鈥�

Souto-Manning sees a need for African-American language to be regarded as 鈥渁 legitimate and worthy language. It should not be erased so that children develop academic English.鈥� Further, she proposes that reading comprehension can build from familiar contexts such as signs in a child鈥檚 neighborhood. 鈥淲e must re-envision reading and writing as 鈥榬eading and re-writing worlds,鈥� recognizing what children already know instead of focusing solely on letter-sound correspondence.鈥�

Ready or Not?

鈥孖ntentional play鈥� can also reveal children鈥檚 broader social and emotional ability and serve as a context to practice and strengthen self-regulatory capacities 鈥� skills increasingly seen as more important to success than raw intelligence.

Small Talk:
Nathan Holbert

With maker technology (3-D printers, laser cutters), kids create their own imaginings. Concerned this opportunity is reaching only white males, TC鈥檚 Nathan Holbert studies ways to increase maker diversity. He believes girls and other underrepresented children who build toys for others will value making as a valuable way to connect to their community.

鈥淪elf-regulation plays a critical role in explaining children鈥檚 resilience in the context of adversity,鈥� says Laudan Jahromi, Associate Professor of Psychology & Education. 鈥淭hese capacities may be one pathway through which children鈥檚 home environment impacts their academic behaviors.鈥�

For the past six years, Jahromi has studied the families of over 200 low-income Mexican-origin teen mothers. She annually gauged the child鈥檚 and the teen mother鈥檚 development and the mother鈥檚 relationship with the child鈥檚 father, her own mother (often a de facto co-parent) and others in her life. One finding: conflict between co-parents when a child is three predicts early literacy, early math skills and social development at age five. An important mediating factor: children鈥檚 behavioral control at age four. Jahromi finds that conflict between co-parents typically results in less such 鈥渆ffortful control鈥� by children, leading to worse outcomes in school and with peers.

鈥淚t鈥檚 important to teach self-regulation in pre-K, before kids begin relying on maladaptive strategies,鈥� Jahromi says. 鈥淓xecutive functioning skills are central to self-regulation.鈥�

One line of intervention is mindfulness 鈥� a term with different meanings, but which generally refers to programs that help kids regulate anger, sadness, fear and anxiety, sharpen their attention and develop empathy.

Not much is yet known about how mindfulness programs work or why one might be more effective than another.

鈥淒ifferent programs target different brain systems,鈥� says doctoral student Trey Avery, who manages Karen Froud鈥檚 lab. In collaboration with researchers at TC鈥檚 National Center for Children & Families, Avery uses EEG to measure children鈥檚 levels of attention, and saliva samples to measure their stress hormone levels. His findings suggest that lower-income students doing daily mindfulness exercises in school engage their attentional networks differently. 鈥淚t鈥檚 something you couldn鈥檛 tell by just looking at the child performing the task,鈥� Avery says. The data, though, are hard to miss: The children Avery has studied outperform higher-income children who aren鈥檛 engaged in mindfulness practices.

Shaping a New Landscape

It鈥檚 clearly a time of innovation in early childhood education. Yet, who benefits is still largely a matter of zip code.

鈥淭here鈥檚 a tremendous discontinuity in how Americans view early childhood education,鈥� says Susan Recchia. 鈥淪ome don鈥檛 see teachers鈥� work with children from birth to age three as a theater for learning, but instead, as a service to parents who work.鈥�

In early childhood education, where settings are both public and private and vary dramatically, innovations rarely catch on systemically and sometimes create new headaches.

Small Talk:
Patrice Nichols

TC鈥檚 Rita Gold Center practices an 鈥渆mergent curriculum,鈥� says director Patrice Nichols. 鈥淲hat happens in the classroom comes from the lived life of the classroom. We create learning opportunities by noticing what children find meaningful. It鈥檚 different than judging success based on kids accomplishing predetermined goals.鈥�

鈥淢any advances happen episodically,鈥� says Sharon Lynn Kagan. 鈥淭hey are wonderful but can add to the inefficient, hodgepodge aspect of what we already have.鈥�

This poses a dilemma that Kagan and Brooks-Gunn explore in a year-long seminar: With so much unknown, should we continue implementing universal pre-K?

Consider Head Start and Early Head Start, which serve low-income children, including many of color. Folding these programs into universal pre-K makes administrative sense, and, for many pre-K programs, could also improve racial diversity, which a recent study by Kagan and NCCF researcher Jeanne Reid found can positively affect children鈥檚 long-term attitudes and experiences.

But merging Head Start and Early Head Start, which are federal programs, into general pre-K, which is locally run, could be a bureaucratic nightmare. It could also penalize the very children the programs were designed to serve. Head Start and Early Head Start get more funding than universal pre-K precisely because they target low-income children, often of color. With the two programs in the general funding basket, would those children lose a valuable service?
Then, too, how to cost-effectively serve the youngest children? Quality center-based care provides benefits lacking in the poorest homes but costs more than home visits. Yet working parents of infants need child care outside the home.

Kagan hopes for answers as pre-K develops a 鈥渓ong-neglected infrastructure,鈥� including standards, accountability, data-driven teaching, finance and professional development.

鈥淚t鈥檚 coming,鈥� she says. 鈥淓arly childhood education is like the women鈥檚 and civil rights movements. Social change doesn鈥檛 happen overnight.鈥�

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-- Siddhartha Mitter

Color photography by Deborah Feingold

Published Thursday, Nov 5, 2015